THE+INDUSTRIAL+REVOLUTION

==** #1 Have you ever been to a history museum? Have you seen any early inventions used in the textile industry, such as a flying shuttle, a spinning jenny, or a cotton gin? What were these inventions like? **== No I havent to a history musem. These were all made to spin cotton. these inventionswere made so you could spin cotton faster.

** #2 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain. List six factors that help to explain why the Industrial Revolution began there. **
the first were agriculture practices,they had a lot of food supplies, brittan had money to invest into the machines that were being built, they had natural resources, britain had a free society, They had had huge empire with their own markets.

** #3 How did factories create a new labor system? **
factorie owners wanted their machines working all day and night so the machines wouldnt mess up and workers were forced to work shifts and if you were a kid you were usually beat if you didnt show up and if you were a guy then you would lose your job or be fined for being late.

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** #4 What countries were the first to be industrialized in continental Europe? Why? **
The first countries to be industrialized in con- tinental Europe were Belgium and France. Industrialization came later in central Europe because the German states were not unified until 1870

#5 In what ways did the Industrial Revolution change the social life of Europe?
the population of Europe had almost doubled to 266 mil- lion. The key to this growth was a decline in death rates, wars, and diseases. Because of an increase in the food supply, more people were better fed and resistant to diseases. Famine disappeared from most of western Europe. Cities and towns grew dramatically in the first half of the nineteenth century. The growth was directly related to industrialization. == #6 In the 1800s, liberals were people who supported ideas such as individ- ual freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and religious freedom. Do you think you would have been a liberal in the 1800s? Why or why not? ==

yeah i would be a liberal because freedom of speech is good because you can have a say so in anything and freedom of religon because you can be in a any religon you want and be free about it

#7 Compare and contrast the philosophies of conservatism and liberalism (concentrate on Government/Religion/Civil Rights).
Conservatives hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept demands from people who wanted either individual rights or representative governments. To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and later France, agreed to have meetings that would maintain the peace in Europe .**Liberalism** (from the Latin //liberalis//, "of freedom; worthy of a free man, gentlemanlike, courteous, generous"[1]) is the belief in the importance of individual freedom.

#8 What was the principle of intervention?
To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and later France, agreed to have meetings that would maintain the peace in Europe. These meetings were called the Concert of Europe. Eventually, most of the great powers adopted a principle of intervention. According to this principle, the great powers had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions in order to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

#9 How did conservatives and liberals feel about nationalism in the early nineteenth century?
They believed that laws should be made by a representative assembly elected by qualified voters. Many liberals favored government ruled by a constitution. They believed that written constitutions would guarantee civil rights. Liberals did not believe in a democracy in which everyone had a right to vote, how- ever. They feared mob rule and thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men of property. Another force for change was nationalism. Nationalism arose out of peo- ple’s awareness of being part of a community with common institutions, traditions, language, and customs

#10 What revolutions took place in Europe in 1848?
was a collection of different peoples, including Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, and Italians. Many of these peoples wanted their own governments. In March 1848, there were demon- strations in the major cities in the Austrian Empire. In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and demanded a liberal constitution. To appease the revolutionaries, the government gave Hungary its own legisla- ture. In Bohemia, the Czechs demanded their own government. Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the revolutionaries, but they were determined to reestablish control. Austrian military forces crushed the Czech rebels and the rebels in Vienna. In 1849, the Hungarian revolutionaries were also defeated. In 1848, a revolt also broke out in Lombardy and Venetia, two provinces in Italy that were part of the Austrian Empire. == #11 Have you ever wondered what our country would be like today if the South had won the Civil War? Have you ever thought what it would be like if each state were its own separate country with its own government and national leaders? How would this affect your life? == this would have a big impact on me because i wouldnt like having our own countries and having slaves thats just weird too me i wouldnt like it at all

#12 Identify some of the causes and effects of the following wars. Crimean War, Franco-Prussian War, United States Civil War
This war was the result of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire had long controlled much of the territory in the Balkans in southeastern Europe. Russia was interested in expanding its territories into the Ottoman lands in the Balkans. In 1853, the Russians invaded the Balkan provinces of Moldavia and Walachia. In response, the Ottoman Turks declared war on Russia.

#13 How did the Crimean War destroy the Concert of Europe?
The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of Europe. Austria and Russia became enemies, because Austria had its own interests in the Balkans and had refused to support Russia in the war. Russia withdrew from European affairs for 20 years. Austria was now without friends among the great powers. This new situation opened the door for the unification of Italy and Germany.

#14 How did the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian Wars contribute to the unification of Italy?
== unification was not yet complete, because Venetia was still held by Austria and Rome was under the control of the pope. The Italians gained control of Venetia as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The kingdom of Italy was an ally of Prussia in the war. Prussia won the war and gave Venetia to the Italians. In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, French troops withdrew from Rome. ==

#15 How did Prussia achieve German unity?
Germans looked to Prussia to take the lead in this cause. Prussia had become a strong and prosperous state. It was also known for its militarism (reliance on military strength). In the 1860s, King William I tried to enlarge the Prussian army. When the Prussian legislature refused to levy new taxes for the army, William I appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck is known for his practice of realpolitik (“the politics of reality”)— politics based on practical matters rather than on theory or ethics. From 1862 to 1866,

#16 What was the Compromise of 1867?
This compromise created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Austria and Hungary each had its own consti- tution, its own legislature, its own bureaucracy, and its own capital. The two countries shared a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances. They also had a single monarch. Francis Joseph was both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.

#17 What was the main issue that divided Federalists and Republicans in the United States before the War of 1812?
The Federalists favored a strong central government. The Republicans wanted the federal government to be subordinate to the state governments.

== #18 Have you ever read the novels A Christmas Carol, Oliver Twist, or Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens? Perhaps you have seen the movies or plays based on these novels. What is the main theme of these novels? ==

ive read a chirstmas carol but i foregot what it was abiut because i read it a longtime ago

#19 Summarize the main emphases and themes of romanticism and realism, and list some of the important writ- ers and artists in these two movements.
At the end of the eighteenth century, a new intellectual movement, known as romanticism, emerged. It was a reaction to the ideas of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment had stressed reason as the chief means for discovering truth. The romantics emphasized feelings, emotion, and imagination as ways of knowing. Romantics also valued individualism, the belief in the uniqueness of each person.

#20 How did many romantics view science and industrialization?
The romantics viewed poetry as the direct expression of the soul. Romantic poetry gave expression to one of the most important characteristics of roman- ticism—its love of nature. This is especially evident in the poetry of William Wordsworth. The worship of nature caused Wordsworth and other romantic poets to be critical of eighteenth-century science. They believed that science had reduced nature to a cold object of study. William Blake was a poet and artist who used the human soul as a source of expressing himself

#21 How did achievements in science and technology contribute to secular- ization in the nineteenth century?
, Michael Faraday created a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electric current. The dramatic material benefits led Europeans to have a growing faith in science. This faith undermined the religious faith of many people. The nine- teenth century was an age of increasing secularization (indifference or rejection of religion or religious consideration). For many people, truth was now to be found in science and the material existence of humans. Charles Darwin, in particular, created a picture of humans as material beings that were simply part of the natural world. In 1859,

#22 What literary form did realist writers prefer?
Realist writers wanted to write about ordinary people from real life rather than romantic heroes in exotic settings. They also avoided emotional language and used precise description. The realist novel was perfected by the French author Gustave Flaubert

=** THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRIAL PROSPERITY Part 2 Of The Industrial Revolution **= ==** Have you ever thought about ways to improve society? 1- What are some areas of society that need improvement? 2- What are your ideas for improving these areas of society? well our society now needs a lot of improvement we need to lower our taxes on food and gas because a lot of people now are unemployed because they are either laid off or they dont have a job at all and car parts are way too high prised. **== ==** By 1900, Europe was divided into two economic zones. One zone was highly industrialized, and the other was still largely agricultural. 3- Identify the countries or regions that made up each zone. #1. Have you ever thought about ways to improve society? What are some areas of society that need improvement? the people that are starving on a daily basis, the people that don't have enough money to provide healthcare for their families, and the enormous amount of people that are homeless. #2. What are your ideas for improving these areas of society? Fundraising #3. By 1900, Europe was divided into two economic zones. One zone highly industrialized, and the other was still largely agriculture. Identify the countries or regions that made up each zone. In the Industrialized zone, there was Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, the western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy. The agricultural zone was the area to the south and east. It was made up southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan kingdoms, and Russia. #4. How was the Second Industrial Revolution different from the first Industrial Revolution? The first Industrial Revolution changed the production of textiles, iron, and coal. In the Second Industrial Revolution, new industries arose in steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum. #5. What was the main difference in the beliefs of pure Marxists and revisionists? Marxists wanted to overthrow capitalism by a violent revolution. Revisionists believed that workers must continue to organize in mass political parties and even work with other parties to gain reforms. Have you ever thought what your life would be like if you were unable to read? What problems would you have? How would this affect your ability to find a job? If I was not able to read, I would not be able to function in the real world. I would not be able to read signs or instructions, or anything. I would not be able to find a job at all. Most jobs require one that knows how to read, and I'm sure that an employer would definitely pick one who could read oppose to someone who could not read. #6. List the groups or occupations that made up the elite, the middle classes, and the working classes in Europe at the end of the nineteenth century. **Elite- ** The wealthy elite were at the top of European society. This group was only 5 percent of the population but controlled 30 to 40 percent of the wealth. It was made up of the landed aristocrats and the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants. Members of the elite became leaders in the government and military. **Middle Class **-Below the upper middle class was a group that included lawyers, doctors, members of the civil service, business managers, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. Beneath this group was a lower middle class of small shopkeepers, traders, and prosperous peasants. The members of this group provided goods and services for the classes above them. **Working Class **-They made up almost 80 percent of the European population. Many of the members of these classes were peasants, farm laborers, and sharecroppers. The urban working class consisted of many different groups, including artisans and semi-skilled laborers. At the bottom of the urban working class were the unskilled laborers. They were the largest group of workers and included day laborers and large numbers of domestic servants. #7.What changes were made in cities in the nineteenth century to improve the public health? City governments created boards of health to improve the quality of housing. Dwellings were now inspected for health hazards. New building regulations required running water and drainage systems for all new buildings. The ability to bring in clean water and expel sewage was essential to the public health in cities. New systems of aqueducts, tunnels, and pipes made this possible. #8.In what ways did the lives of urban workers improve after 1870? The cost of consumer goods declined, workers could buy more than just food and housing. Workers now had money for more clothes and even leisure activities. At the same time, strikes were leading to 10-hour workdays and Saturday afternoons off. -How did the Second Industrial Revolution open the door to new jobs for women? -What were the two main reasons that Western nations made a commitment to public education? THE NATIONAL STATE AND DEMOCRACY -Have you ever thought what your life would be like if you had been born in a different country? what do you think would effect you more-- the difference in economics or the difference in political systems? -By1907, europe was divided into two opposing camps. List the countries in each of the two alliances. -What reforms did the Liberal Party make in Great Britain to keep the support of the workers? -Why did conservative forces in Germany support a strong foreign policy? -what land did the United States acquire in the late nineteenth century? -What sequence of events led to the formation of the Triple Entente? -What tensions existed in Europe at the beginning of 1914? TOWARD THE MODERN CONSCIOUSNESS -Do you like modern art? Who is your favorite artist? Is there a particular movement that you are especially interested in? -In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many writers and artists rebelled against traditional literary and artistic styles. List the movements in literature, painting, architecture, and music dur- ing this period. Also list some of the important writers, artists, and musicians in these movements. -How did Einstein’s theory of relativity change people’s view of the universe? -Why did so many Jews decide to emigrate around the turn of the century? -How did photography contribute to the decline of realism in painting? Social Structure of Mass Society (page 304)After 1871, most people enjoyed an improved standard of living. Even so, great poverty remained a part of Western society. The wealthy elite were at the top of European society. This group was only 5 percent of the population but controlled 30 to 40 percent of the wealth. It was made up of the landed aristocrats and the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants (the wealthy upper middle class). Members of the elite became leaders in the gov- ernment and military. The middle classes consisted of a variety of groups. Below the upper middle class was a group that included lawyers, doctors, members of the civil service, business managers, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists. Beneath this group was a lower middle class of small shopkeepers, traders, and prosperous peasants. The members of this group provided goods and services for the classes above them. The Second Industrial Revolution produced a new group of white-collar workers between the lower middle class and the lower classes. Although not highly paid, these white-collar workers were often committed to middle-class ideals. A chief objective of middle class life was the belief in hard work. They were also regular churchgoers who believed in Christian morality. Below the middle classes were the working classes. They made up almost 80 percent of the European population. Many of the members of these classes were peasants, farm laborers, and sharecroppers. The urban working class consisted of many different groups, including artisans and semi-skilled labor- ers. At the bottom of the urban working class were the unskilled laborers. They were the largest group of workers and included day laborers and large numbers of domestic servants. Urban workers experienced an improvement in their lives after 1870. Reforms created better living conditions in cities. As wages increased and the cost of consumer goods declined, workers could buy more than just food and housing. Workers now had money for more clothes and even leisure activities. At the same time, strikes were leading to 10-hour workdays and Saturday afternoons off. **==

**8 - In what ways did the lives of urban workers improve after 1870? **
 The Experiences of Women (page 306)During much of the nineteenth century, middle-class and working-class groups believed that women should remain at home and not be allowed in the industrial workforce. Marriage remained the only honorable and available career for most women. One important change in women’s lives did occur during this time, however. The number of children born to the average woman began to decline.Some differences existed in the lives of middle-class and working-class women. Most working-class women had to earn money to help their families. Daughters in working-class families generally worked until they married. After marriage, they often did small jobs at home to help in the raising of younger children. Between 1890 and 1914, however, higher-paying jobs in heavy industry allowed many working-class families to depend on the income of husbands alone. The Second Industrial Revolution opened the door to new jobs for women. A high demand for relatively low paid white-collar workers led many employers to hire women. Industrial plants and retail shops both needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and salespeople. Women also took jobs in the fields of education, health, and social services. Modern feminism, or the movement for women’s rights, had its beginnings during the Enlightenment. In the 1830s, a number of women in the United States and Europe argued for the right of women to divorce and own prop- erty. These early efforts were not very successful, and married women in Britain did not win the right to own some property until 1870. The fight for property rights was only the beginning of the women’s movement. Some middle-class women fought for and gained access to universities. Others tried to enter occupations dominated by men. Women generally could not train to become doctors. Some, however, entered the medical field by becom- ing nurses. Amalie Sieveking, Florence Nightingale, and Clara Barton were leaders in the nursing profession. In the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women’s rights expanded as women demanded equal political rights. Many feminists believed that the right to vote was the key to improving the overall position of women. Suffragists (people who advocate the extension of political rights) had one basic aim: the right of women to full citizenship. Before World War I, how- ever, only women in Norway, Finland, and some states in the United States actually received the right to vote.

**9 -How did the Second Industrial Revolution open the door to new jobs for women? **
 Changes in Education and Leisure Universal education was a result of the mass society of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most Western governments began to set up state-financed primary schools. Both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 12 were required to attend these schools. Western nations made this commitment to public education for two main reasons. One reason was indus- trialization. The new firms of the Second Industrial Revolution needed trained, skilled labor. Both boys and girls with an elementary education now had new job possibilities. These included white-collar jobs in railways, post offices, and the teaching and nursing fields. A second reason for public educa- tion was political. Giving more people the right to vote created a need for better-educated voters. Primary schools also instilled patriotism. The most immediate result of public education was in increase in literacy (the ability to read). In western and central Europe, most adults could read by 1900. With the increase in literacy after 1870 came the rise of mass news- papers. These newspapers were all written in an easily understood style. They were also sensationalistic, that is, they provided gossip and gruesome details of crimes. The Second Industrial Revolution allowed people to pursue new forms of leisure. Leisure came to be viewed as what people do for fun after work. The industrial system gave people new times for leisure activities—evening hours, weekends, and a week or two in the summer. The new forms of leisure tended to be passive, not participatory. Amusement parks introduced people to new experiences and technology. Team sports also developed into another form of leisure. Subways and street- cars made it possible for even the working classes to get to athletic games, amusement parks, and dance halls. Amusement parks and professional sports teams were essentially big businesses organized to make profits.

**10 - What were the two main reasons that Western nations made a commitment to public education? **
==**Have you ever thought what your life would be like if you had been born in a different country? What do you think would affect you more— the difference in economics or the difference in political systems? **== <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">11 - By 1907, Europe was divided into two opposing camps. List the countries in each of the two alliances. **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Western Europe and Political Democracy By the late nineteenth century, progress had been made toward establishing democracy, especially in Western European nations. In the West, laws were passed that granted universal male suffrage. Also, there was ministerial responsibility (the idea that the prime minister is responsible to the popularly elected legislative body, not to the king or president). This principle is crucial for democracy.By 1871, Great Britain had long had a working two-party parliamentary system. Laws passed in 1867 and 1884 increased the number of adult males who could vote. By the end of World War I, all males over age 21 and women over 30 could vote. The working class supported the Liberal Party, but two developments threatened this support. First, trade unions grew, and they began to favor a more radical change of the economic system. Second, in 1900, a new party, the Labour Party, was formed. It was dedicated to the interest of workers. To keep the support of the workers, the Liberals voted for a series of social reforms. The National Insurance Act of 1911 provided benefits for work- ers in case of sickness and unemployment. Other laws provided a small pension for people over 70 and compensation for people injured in accidents at work.In France, the Second Empire had collapsed. It took five years after the Third Republic was set up to proclaim a republican constitution. The new gov- ernment had a president and a legislature made up of two houses. Members of the upper house, called the Senate, were elected indirectly. Members of the lower house, called the Chamber of Deputies, were elected by universal male suffrage. The powers of the president were not well defined by the constitu- tion. A premier (prime minister) actually led the government. The existence of a dozen political parties forced the premier to depend on a coalition of parties to stay in power. There were frequent changes in government leadership. By 1870, Italy was a united national state. The nation had little sense of unity, however. A huge gulf separated the poverty-stricken south from the industrialized north. Constant turmoil between labor and industry weakened the nation. Universal male suffrage was granted in 1912 but did little to stop corruption and weakness in the government.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">12 -What reforms did the Liberal Party make in Great Britain to keep the support of the workers? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order Germany became a united state under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck. In 1871 Germany had a two-house legislature. The upper house representa- tives were appointed by the 26 princely states. The lower house of the German parliament, the Reichstag, was elected by universal male suffrage. Ministers of government were responsible to the emperor, not to the parlia- ment, however. The emperor controlled the armed forces, foreign policy, and the bureaucracy. As chancellor (prime minister), Bismarck did not want Germany to become a democracy. By the reign of William II, emperor from 1888 to 1918, Germany had become the strongest power in Europe. Demands for democracy increased. Conservative forces in Germany tried to block the movement for democracy by supporting a strong foreign policy. They believed that expansion abroad would not only increase profits but also divert people from pursuing democratic reforms.After the creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867, Austria enacted a constitution that, in theory, set up a parliamentary system with ministerial responsibility. In reality, the emperor, Francis Joseph, ignored the system. He appointed and dismissed his own ministers and issued laws when the parliament was not in session. Austria remained troubled by con- flicts between the various nationalities in the empire. Representatives of these groups in parliament worked for their freedom. This encouraged the emperor to ignore the parliament even more. On the other hand, Hungary had a parlia- ment that worked. But it was controlled by Magyar landowners who dominated the peasants and ethnic groups. In Russia, Nicholas II began his rule in 1894 believing that the absolute power of the czars should be preserved. Conditions in Russia were changing, however. Industrialization progressed rapidly in Russia after 1890. With industrialization came an industrial working class, and socialist parties. Government repression forced these parties to go underground. Opposition to the czar finally exploded into the Revolution of 1905. On January 22, a pro- cession of workers went to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the czar. Troops opened fire on the peaceful demon- stration, killing hundreds. This “Bloody Sunday” caused workers throughout Russia to call strikes. Nicholas II was forced to grant civil liberties and create a legislative assembly, called the Duma. By 1907, however, the czar had already reduced the power of the Duma. He again used the army and bureaucracy to rule.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">13 - Why did conservative forces in Germany support a strong foreign policy? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The United States (page 316)After the Civil War, the old South was destroyed. One-fifth of the adult male population in the South had been killed, and four million slaves had been freed. In 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, which abolished slavery. Later, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments gave citizenship to African Americans and the right to vote to African American males. However, new state laws in southern states soon stripped African Americans of their right to vote.Between 1860 and 1914, the United States shifted from an agrarian to an industrial nation. Industrialization led to urbanization. By 1900, over 40 per- cent of Americans lived in cities. Europeans migrated to the United States in massive numbers. The United States had become the world’s richest nation, but serious problems remained. In 1890, the richest 9 percent of Americans owned 71 percent of the wealth. Labor unrest led workers to try to organize unions, but the American Federation of Labor represented only 8.4 percent of the labor force. From the mid-nineteenth century, the United States began to expand abroad. The Samoan Islands in the Pacific became the first important United States colony. As more Americans settled in Hawaii, they sought to gain political power. In 1893, American residents, aided by U.S. Marines from the ship U.S.S. Boston, overthrew the monarchy of Queen Liliuokalani (lee•lee•oo•oh•kah•LAH•nee). Five years later, the United States formally annexed Hawaii. In the same year, the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War. As a result, the United States acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the United States had an empire.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">14 - What land did the United States acquire in the late nineteenth century? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> International Rivalries Otto von Bismarck was afraid that France would create an anti-German alliance, so he created an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879. In 1882, Italy joined the alliance. The Triple Alliance of 1882 united Germany, Austria- Hungary, and Italy in a defensive alliance against France. At the same time, Bismarck had a separate treaty with Russia and tried to remain on good terms with Great Britain. In 1890, Emperor William II fired Bismarck and took con- trol of Germany’s foreign policy. He dropped the treaty with Russia. This brought France and Russia together. In 1894, they formed a military alliance. Over the next 10 years, German policies caused the British to draw closer to France. By 1907, an alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia—known as the Triple Entente—was formed. Europe was now divided into two opposing camps that became more and more unwilling to compromise. A series of crises in the Balkans between 1908 and 1913 set the stage for World War I.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">15 - What sequence of events led to the formation of the Triple Entente? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Crises in the Balkans During the nineteenth century, the Balkan provinces had gradually gained their freedom. By 1878, Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro had become independent states. Bulgaria did not become totally independent, but was allowed to operate under Russian protection. The Balkan territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the protection of Austria-Hungary. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia was out- raged. Bosnia and Herzegovina were Slavic-speaking territories, and Serbia had hopes of creating a large Serbian kingdom that would include most of the southern Slavs. Backed by the Russians, the Serbs prepared for war against Austria-Hungary. Emperor William II of Germany demanded that the Russians accept Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina or face war with Germany. The Russians backed down, but two wars between Balkan states in 1912 and 1913 created more tensions between the great powers. The Serbians blamed Austria-Hungary for their failure to create a large Serbian kingdom. Austria-Hungary was convinced that Serbia was a threat to its empire and must be crushed. As Serbia’s chief supporters, the Russians were angry and determined not to back down again. The allies of Austria- Hungary and Russia were determined to support their allies more strongly in another crisis. By the beginning of 1914, most of the countries of Europe viewed each other with suspicion.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">16 What tensions existed in Europe at the beginning of 1914? **
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Do you like modern art? Who is your favorite artist? Is there a particular movement that you are especially interested in? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many writers and artists rebelled against traditional literary and artistic styles. List the movements in literature, painting, architecture, and music during this period. Also list some of the important writers, artists, and musicians in these movements.

From Certainty to Uncertainty In the nineteenth century, Westerners had a view of the world that was based on the ideas of Isaac Newton. The universe was viewed as a giant machine. Matter was thought to be composed of solid material bodies called atoms. Time, space, and matter were believed to be objective realities that existed independently of people observing them. These views were ques- tioned at the end of the nineteenth century. The French scientist Marie Curie discovered that an element called radium gave off energy, or radiation, that came from the atom itself. This meant that atoms were not simply hard mate- rial bodies but were small, active worlds.At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new view of the universe was provided by Albert Einstein. In 1905, Einstein published his special theory of relativity. It stated that space and time are not absolute but are relative to the people observing them. Matter and energy also reflect the relativity of time and space. Einstein concluded that matter is simply another form of energy. This idea led to an understanding of the vast energies contained within the atom and to the Atomic Age. To some people, however, a relative universe was a universe without certainty. The ideas of Sigmund Freud added to the uncertainty that people felt about the world at the turn of the century. In 1900 his theories were published in The Interpretation of Dreams. According to Freud, human behavior was strongly determined by past experiences. Freud believed that painful experiences were repressed, or hidden, from a person’s conscious awareness. But these experi- ences continued to influence behavior. Repression of these experiences began in childhood. Freud devised a method by which a therapist and patient could probe deeply into the patient’s memory. This method is called psychoanalysis. Freud’s ideas gained worldwide acceptance in the 1920s. Psychoanalysis developed into a major profession. Freudian terms, such as unconscious and repression, became standard vocabulary words.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">17 - How did Einstein’s theory of relativity change people’s view of the universe? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Social Darwinism and Anti-Semitism In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, scientific theories weresometimes applied inappropriately. For example, nationalists and racists applied the theories of Charles Darwin to human society. Their ideas are known as Social Darwinism. One Social Darwinist, Herbert Spencer, argued that social progress came from the “struggle for survival” in which the “fit” survive. Some businessmen used Social Darwinism to explain their success. They believed that they were successful because they were “fit” (strong and capable). Extreme nationalists also believed that nations were engaged in a “struggle for existence” in which only the fittest (the strongest) survived. In Germany, extreme nationalism and racism were combined. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, for example, believed that Germans were the only pure succes- sors of the Aryans (who were the original creators of Western culture, according to Chamberlain). Chamberlain also believed that Jews were enemies who wanted to destroy the Aryan race.Anti-Semitism (hostility toward and discrimination against Jews) had been a part of European civilization since the Middle Ages. In the nineteenth cen- tury, Jews were granted legal equality in many European countries. Many Jews became successful as bankers, lawyers, scientists, scholars, and journal- ists. Discrimination still existed, however. In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jew, was found guilty of selling army secrets and was condemned to life imprisonment. Evidence soon showed that Dreyfus was innocent and that the real traitor was a Catholic aristocrat. But the army refused a new trial. Public outrage finally forced the government to pardon Dreyfus in 1899. In Germany and Austria-Hungary, new parties arose during the 1880s and 1890s that used anti-Semitism to win votes. The worst treatment of Jews at the turn of the century occurred in eastern Europe, where a majority of the world’s Jews lived. Russian Jews were forced to live in certain regions of the country. Persecutions and pogroms (organized massacres) were widespread. Hundreds of thousands of Jews decided to emigrate (move to another country) to escape the persecution. Many went to the United States. Some went to Palestine, the land of ancient Israel. Palestine became home for a Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism. Settlement in Palestine was difficult because it was part of the Ottoman Empire and the Ottomans opposed Jewish immigration. Even so, about 3,000 Jews went annually to Palestine between 1904 and 1914.

**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">18 - Why did so many Jews decide to emigrate around the turn of the century? **
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The Culture of Modernity Between 1870 and 1914, many writers and artists rebelled against traditional literary and artistic styles. The changes that they produced have since been called modernism. During much of the nineteenth century, literature was dominated by naturalism. Naturalists felt that literature should be realistic and address social problems. Two examples of naturalist writers are Henrik Ibsen and Émile Zola. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a group of writers known as symbolists caused a literary revolution. They were primarily interested in writing poetry and were influenced by the ideas of Freud. They believed that the external world was only a collection of symbols that reflected the true reality—the human mind.The period from 1870 to 1914 was one of the most productive in the history of the visual arts. Impressionism was a movement that began in France in the 1870s. Impressionist artists rejected studios and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly. One important Impressionist was Claude Monet. In his paintings, he tried to capture the interplay of light, water, and sky. Other Impressionist painters include Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Berthe Morisot. In the 1880s, a new movement, known as Postimpressionism, arose in France. Vincent van Gogh is one famous Postimpressionist. For van Gogh, art was a spiritual experience. He believed that artists should paint what they feel.Realism in painting began to decline. The spread of photography was one important reason. Now, anyone could take a photograph that looked exactly like the subject. Artists began to realize that their strength was not in mirror- ing reality, but in creating reality. Between 1905 and 1914, artists searched for individual expression. This search created modern art. One of the most impor- tant figures in modern art was Pablo Picasso. He painted in many different styles. He also created a new style, called cubism, that used geometric designs to recreate reality in the viewer’s mind. In 1910, abstract painting began. Wassily Kandinsky was one of the founders of abstract expressionism. He tried to avoid visual reality completely. He believed that art should speak directly to the soul and should use only line and color. Modernism in the arts revolutionized architecture. A new movement in architecture, known as functionalism, developed. Functionalism said buildings, like machines, should be useful. The United States was a leader in the new architecture. Two important pioneers were Louis H. Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. Sullivan designed skyscrapers of reinforced concrete and steel free of external decoration. Wright specialized in building homes with long geometric lines and overhanging roofs. At the beginning of the twentieth century, developments in music paral- leled developments in painting. The music of the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky was the first to reflect expressionist theorie